FAQ: Waste-to-energy

The operator has information obligations towards the authority and the public, and some incinerators make continuous measurement results available on the internet. The scope and form depend on the permit and national regulations.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji (UE) 2019/2010 — konkluzje BAT dla spalania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2024/1785 zmieniająca dyrektywę IED — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Emissions from waste incineration plants: standards, monitoring and what the community can see

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Modern waste incinerators must meet the strict emission standards of the Industrial Emissions Directive and the BAT conclusions, and emissions are monitored and controlled by the authorities: key parameters (including dust, nitrogen and sulphur oxides, hydrogen chloride and CO) are measured continuously, and heavy metals, dioxins and furans periodically.

The permit sets limit concentrations of, among others, dust, nitrogen and sulphur oxides, hydrogen chloride, heavy metals, dioxins and furans. The flue gas cleaning system (filters, scrubbers, catalysts, activated carbon) removes most pollutants, and the results of continuous measurements are published or passed to the authorities. Residents'' opposition often stems from earlier experience with old installations. A health and environmental risk assessment is part of the environmental impact procedure. The final limits for a specific plant follow from its integrated permit. This is general information.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE o emisjach przemysłowych — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2024/1785 (IED 2.0) — EUR-Lex

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For dry organic waste with low water content an incinerator can be useful, but for wet bio-waste (kitchen, green, slurry) digestion works better, as it yields biogas and digestate that returns to the soil.

Bio-waste is heavy and wet, so in an incinerator a significant part of the energy goes into evaporating the water. Anaerobic digestion makes use of the moisture and yields a fertiliser or soil improver, which closes the material loop in line with the waste hierarchy. An incinerator, on the other hand, is a solution for mixed residual waste that cannot sensibly be divided. The best systems therefore combine separate collection of bio-waste, biogas plants and incinerators for residual fractions, rather than treating them as competitors.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE o odpadach — EUR-Lex; IEA Bioenergy Task 37 — Energy from Biogas

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No. Only the types and quantities of waste specified in the permits are allowed, after quality control. Parameters such as chlorine, mercury or calorific value decide whether a batch is accepted.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji 2013/163/UE — konkluzje BAT dla produkcji cementu, wapna i tlenku magnezu — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Co-incineration of waste in cement plants and heating plants: requirements, emissions, practice

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In practice, rarely. It requires a homogeneous, prepared feedstock, and the products have to be managed. For mixed municipal waste, an incinerator is the more mature solution.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Energy from waste: comparing the routes — digestion, incineration, pyrolysis and landfill gas

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Yes, sewage sludge is incinerated in specialised mono-incinerators or co-incinerated in other installations, and this route is gaining importance where the use of sludge in agriculture is restricted by regulations or by quality.

After dewatering and drying, sludge has a calorific value, and incineration reduces its mass and destroys organic contaminants. The ash from mono-incinerators contains phosphorus, which can be recovered, and a requirement to recover phosphorus from sludge is increasingly appearing in policy. An alternative is to use sludge for biogas production in the treatment plant's digesters and to manage the residues further. The choice depends on sludge quality, costs and local conditions, and every route requires permits and compliance with emission standards. This is general information.

Sources: Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu w sprawie katalogu odpadów (Dz.U. 2020 poz. 10) — ISAP; Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska

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In a waste incineration plant, the main purpose is the disposal or recovery of waste, and energy is a by-product. In a co-incineration plant, the main purpose is the production of energy or products (e.g. clinker), and waste is a fuel.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji 2013/163/UE — konkluzje BAT dla produkcji cementu, wapna i tlenku magnezu — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Co-incineration of waste in cement plants and heating plants: requirements, emissions, practice

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They can compete if a plant is oversized and "needs" waste, which is why EU policy provides that incineration should serve residual waste that is unsuitable for recycling, and not replace sorting.

The dispute is about scale: supporters stress that an incinerator replaces landfilling and recovers energy and metals, while opponents warn of a lock-in effect, where long-term contracts discourage waste reduction. The waste hierarchy ranks recycling above energy recovery, and EU targets assume growth in recycling and a fall in landfilling of municipal waste to 10% by 2035. When planning capacity, municipalities and regions should take into account forecasts of residual waste volumes and sorting trends. Both sides of the dispute rarely talk about the same scale, so it is worth reading regional data.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE o odpadach — EUR-Lex; Zero Waste Europe

Discussed in the article: ITPOK in Poland: thermal treatment of municipal waste — status and significance in 2025

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Not under the current legal situation. Since 2024, municipal waste incinerators have been monitoring and reporting emissions under the EU ETS, but they do not have to surrender allowances. Bringing them under the full system requires a further decision by the legislator.

Sources: Dyrektywa (UE) 2023/959 zmieniająca dyrektywę 2003/87/WE (EU ETS) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2003/87/WE ustanawiająca system handlu uprawnieniami do emisji — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: EU ETS for municipal waste incineration plants: monitoring from 2024 and decisions after 2028

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No. The taxonomy is not a ban but a classification system that determines whether an activity can be considered environmentally sustainable. An incinerator can be built, but it will not benefit from the preferences provided for qualifying activities.

Sources: Rozporządzenie (UE) 2020/852 w sprawie ustanowienia ram ułatwiających zrównoważone inwestycje (taksonomia) — EUR-Lex; Rozporządzenie (UE) 2021/1058 w sprawie EFRR i Funduszu Spójności — EUR-Lex; Port Czystej Energii w Gdańsku oficjalnie otwarty — gov.pl (aktualizacja)

Discussed in the article: Waste incineration plants and the EU taxonomy: the DNSH principle and public financing of ITPOK

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The formula applies to installations intended for processing municipal (solid) waste. For other incinerators, e.g. for hazardous waste, a different classification applies.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów (załącznik II) — EUR-Lex; Ustawa o odpadach — ISAP

Discussed in the article: R1 or D10: the energy efficiency indicator of incineration plants — formula, thresholds and example

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An incinerator (a thermal waste treatment plant) burns waste in a boiler at a temperature of at least 850 °C, recovers heat to produce steam, heat and electricity, and cleans the flue gas in a multi-stage system.

The waste is fed onto a grate, where it burns under controlled conditions, and the Industrial Emissions Directive requires the flue gases to be kept at at least 850 °C for at least two seconds. Steam from the boiler drives a turbine or feeds a district heating network. The flue gas passes through denitrification, neutralisation of acid gases, desulphurisation, sorbents to bind dioxins and metals, and filters. The residues are slag and ash. The plant is monitored continuously, and the results are subject to inspection and reporting in line with the permit.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE o emisjach przemysłowych — EUR-Lex; CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants

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Pyrolysis takes place without oxygen and yields gas, liquid and char. Gasification is carried out with a limited amount of gasifying agent (air, oxygen, steam) and is intended to produce primarily syngas.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Gasification of waste and biomass: reactor types, syngas, tars and commercial reality

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According to the Ministry of the Environment, in fiscal year 2023 there were 1004 (as at 31 March 2024), and according to Nippon.com, describing the results of the survey for fiscal year 2024, 991.

Sources: Ministerstwo Środowiska Japonii – Municipal solid waste generation and disposal in FY2023 (27.03.2025); Nippon.com – Japan's Quantity of Waste and Recycling Rate Both Down in Fiscal 2024 (30.04.2026)

Discussed in the article: Japanese municipal waste incinerators in 2022–2024: number of plants, energy and recycling

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According to data for 2022, Poland had eight municipal waste thermal treatment plants with a combined capacity of about 1.2 million tonnes a year, and more were under construction, including in Warsaw.

The figures come from a scientific and reporting study based on data for 2022 and quickly become outdated, because new installations were commissioned or built in 2023–2026, and some projects were supported by NFOŚiGW (the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management). Capacity is not the same as utilisation; according to the same source, capacity utilisation for municipal waste was then well below 100%. The current list and capacities are published by GUS (Statistics Poland), the ministry and the operators, so check the latest data before using it in a study or an investment.

According to the IOŚ-PIB report for 2022 there were eight of them, and after the Clean Energy Port in Gdańsk was commissioned in 2025, media summaries list nine; the exact number depends on the definition adopted and the date.

Sources: Główny Urząd Statystyczny; Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska; Port Czystej Energii oficjalnie otwarty — gov.pl; 10% składowania do 2035 — Polska musi budować więcej instalacji TPO — Wartowiedzieć.pl; Spalarnie odpadów w Polsce — gdzie się znajdują? — Globenergia (aktualizacja)

Discussed in the article: ITPOK in Poland: thermal treatment of municipal waste — status and significance in 2025

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It depends on the dry matter, the VS share and BMP. For example, a tonne of waste with a yield of 100 m³ CH₄ gives about 1000 kWh of chemical energy, and after conversion in cogeneration about 380–420 kWh of electricity.

Sources: IEA Bioenergy Task 37 — Energy from Biogas; Główny Urząd Statystyczny — Ochrona środowiska

Discussed in the article: Energy from organic waste: how to estimate the biogas potential of bio-waste

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Usually several dozen per cent (in the order of 40–60%) by volume; the rest is mainly CO₂ plus trace amounts of H₂S, organic compounds and siloxanes. The composition changes with the age of the landfill and the quality of gas extraction.

Sources: Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill gas: how it forms, what it consists of and who must degas a landfill

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Under the IED Directive, measurements of dioxins and furans and of heavy metals are carried out at least twice a year, and in the first year of operation at least every three months. The BAT conclusions also allow long-term sampling.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji (UE) 2019/2010 — konkluzje BAT dla spalania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2024/1785 zmieniająca dyrektywę IED — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Emissions from waste incineration plants: standards, monitoring and what the community can see

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Incineration oxidises waste in excess oxygen and usually yields heat directly, while pyrolysis (without oxygen) and gasification (with limited oxygen) break it down into gas, oil or synthesis gas, which are then used.

In incineration all the energy is released in the boiler and used as heat or electricity. Pyrolysis and gasification produce an intermediate fuel, which gives greater flexibility (e.g. production of chemicals) but also requires further cleaning and burning or processing of the product. In legal terms, installations that treat waste thermally are subject to the rules for thermal treatment of waste if the products are then burned or if the process is part of such an installation. When assessing profitability, the reliability of the technology and the stability of the feedstock must be taken into account.

Sources: CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE o emisjach przemysłowych — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Waste pyrolysis: the state of the technology, products, limitations and a realistic assessment

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No. The law operates with the concepts of biomass, biogas, waste and sustainability criteria. The term “dirty RES” is a mental shortcut from the public debate that does not define a single technology or common emissions.

Sources: Biomass — Komisja Europejska, DG Energy; Ustawa o OZE: współspalać czy nie? — Gramwzielone.pl (31.08.2012)

Discussed in the article: "Dirty renewables": what the colloquial term means and which energy sources it covers

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Partly: only the part of the energy that comes from burning the biodegradable fraction of the waste (biomass) is recognised as renewable, and the rest comes from non-renewable fractions, e.g. plastics.

In mixed municipal waste, biodegradable components such as paper, wood and food scraps account for a significant share of the energy, by typical estimates about half, but the share depends on the composition of the waste and the quality of sorting. For statistical and renewable-energy accounting purposes, the biogenic share of waste is therefore determined by measurement or estimation methods. The more effectively bio-waste is separated out, the less renewable energy comes from the incinerator, and the more effectively plastics are separated out, the lower the fossil emissions. Recognition as renewable energy does not in itself make waste incineration the preferred solution in the hierarchy.

Sources: Dyrektywa (UE) 2023/2413 (RED III) — EUR-Lex; CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants

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No. It is an incinerator (within the meaning of the regulations) when the substances produced in pyrolysis are then burned. An installation producing a feedstock for further processing may be assessed as a waste processing installation.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex; Akty prawne — ISAP (Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych)

Discussed in the article: Pyrolysis and gasification of waste under the law: waste, fuel or incineration?

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In Polish law, biogas is defined as gas obtained from biomass, including from landfills, so energy from it is energy from renewable sources (RES). The availability of support depends on capacity and commissioning date.

Sources: Ustawa o odnawialnych źródłach energii — ISAP; Urząd Regulacji Energetyki — informacje o odnawialnych źródłach energii; Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill gas in cogeneration: installation, cleaning, support and pitfalls

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It is usually not regarded as material recycling, because it produces oils and gases for further use as fuel; it may count as recycling or as other recovery processes, depending on how the products are used.

Pyrolysis of tyres yields pyrolysis oil, gas and char (carbon), from which a product similar to carbon black may be made. When the products are used as fuel, this is energy recovery, which ranks lower in the hierarchy than recycling. If the recovered material goes into new products, the assessment may differ. EU rules specify how recycling is counted and the conditions for end-of-waste status. For investors, what matters is the quality of the products, compliance with standards and the availability of buyers, and for the surroundings, emissions and safety.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE o odpadach — EUR-Lex; Zero Waste Europe

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By default, a waste. It may cease to be one once the end-of-waste conditions are met: it is commonly used, has a market, meets technical standards and does not harm the environment. This is assessed for a specific product.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex; Akty prawne — ISAP (Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych)

Discussed in the article: Pyrolysis and gasification of waste under the law: waste, fuel or incineration?

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It depends on what is produced and how it is used. When a raw material for making new materials is recovered from plastics, this is called chemical recycling; when the products are used as fuel, it is energy recovery.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Waste pyrolysis: the state of the technology, products, limitations and a realistic assessment

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Yes, RDF is waste (usually with code 19 12 10) until it goes through the "end-of-waste" procedure; it becomes a fuel only when it meets the criteria of the law and standards, not merely because it is combustible.

Directive 2008/98/EC (Article 6) requires the material to meet the conditions: it is commonly used for specific purposes, there is a market or demand, it meets the technical requirements and standards, and it does not lead to adverse effects. For solid fuels from waste there is the EN ISO 21640 standard (SRF – solid recovered fuel), which describes classification and specification. In practice, the transport and co-incineration of RDF require waste permits, and the recipient (e.g. a cement plant) is responsible for compliance with the rules on thermal treatment of waste. This is general information, not legal advice.

The waste code may also be 19 12 12. This means record-keeping obligations, permits and restrictions on trade.

Sources: Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu w sprawie katalogu odpadów (Dz.U. 2020 poz. 10) — ISAP; Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE o odpadach — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: RDF and SRF: waste-derived fuels — waste codes, standards, quality classes and the market of recipients

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No. Reppie is a waste-to-energy plant that burns municipal waste and produces electricity. Methane fermentation (anaerobic digestion) is a separate technology, better suited to separately collected biowaste.

Sources: In depth: Ethiopia spearheading Africa's waste-to-energy future — Waste Management World (11.08.2017); Ethiopia launches 50-MW waste-to-energy plant — Anadolu Agency (19.08.2018); Operational hurdles at Reppi Waste-to-Energy plant cost City Admin — The Reporter Ethiopia (8.03.2025); Basics of Waste Management — African Clean Cities Platform (cytuje World Bank, What a Waste 2.0)

Discussed in the article: Reppie in Addis Ababa: 50 MW from municipal waste at the former Koshe landfill

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No. Rates are set separately for waste codes and range from over a dozen zlotys per Mg for some mining wastes to several hundred for municipal and combustible wastes.

Sources: Obwieszczenie Ministra Klimatu i Środowiska w sprawie wysokości stawek opłat za korzystanie ze środowiska na rok 2026 (M.P. 2025 poz. 769) — ELI; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill fees and the waste-to-energy market: how rates steer waste streams

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RDF is a fuel from waste of varying, often poorly defined quality, while SRF (solid recovered fuel) is a fuel produced according to the EN ISO 21640 standard, with defined quality classes (including calorific value, chlorine and mercury).

SRF is therefore more standardised and easier to sell, because the buyer knows the fuel's parameters. RDF producers often aim for SRF in order to achieve stable quality and price. In practice the difference relates to quality control and certification, and in waste law both can be waste until they go through the end-of-waste procedure. For a cement plant or a combined heat and power plant, what counts is compliance with emission limits and the technological parameters of the boiler. The availability of SRF depends on sorting and production technology.

Sources: Komisja Europejska — Dyrekcja Generalna ds. Środowiska; Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu w sprawie katalogu odpadów (Dz.U. 2020 poz. 10) — ISAP

Discussed in the article: RDF and SRF: waste-derived fuels — waste codes, standards, quality classes and the market of recipients

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These are emission levels associated with the best available techniques, given as ranges of values. The permit sets limits within these ranges or stricter ones.

Sources: Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji (UE) 2019/2010 — konkluzje BAT dla spalania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: BAT conclusions for waste incineration (Decision 2019/2010): requirements, emission levels, deadlines

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The installation is treated as recovery rather than disposal. This matters in statistics, in waste classification and in the rules on waste shipments, where recovery and disposal are treated differently.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów (załącznik II) — EUR-Lex; Ustawa o odpadach — ISAP

Discussed in the article: R1 or D10: the energy efficiency indicator of incineration plants — formula, thresholds and example

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It is an installation that combines several energy sources. At Gyankobaa, according to reports, these are photovoltaics, a biogas plant and plastic pyrolysis, which together provide 400 kW of capacity.

Sources: Ghana commissions first waste-to-energy power plant — Pumps Africa (3.05.2022); Hybrid biogas plant is first for West Africa — Bioenergy News (4.05.2022); Potencjał energii elektrycznej z biogazu z odpadów żywności w Akrze i Kumasi — Energy 226 (2021)

Discussed in the article: Ghana: a hybrid waste-to-energy plant in Kumasi and the potential of biogas from food waste

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“Do no significant harm” is the principle of not causing serious damage. An investment financed with EU funds must meet its main objective without causing significant harm to the other environmental objectives, including the circular economy.

Sources: Rozporządzenie (UE) 2020/852 w sprawie ustanowienia ram ułatwiających zrównoważone inwestycje (taksonomia) — EUR-Lex; Rozporządzenie (UE) 2021/1058 w sprawie EFRR i Funduszu Spójności — EUR-Lex; Port Czystej Energii w Gdańsku oficjalnie otwarty — gov.pl (aktualizacja)

Discussed in the article: Waste incineration plants and the EU taxonomy: the DNSH principle and public financing of ITPOK

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The amount of gas declines over time as the organic matter is depleted. The installation must be designed modularly so that engine capacity can be reduced or the engines relocated.

Sources: Ustawa o odnawialnych źródłach energii — ISAP; Urząd Regulacji Energetyki — informacje o odnawialnych źródłach energii; Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill gas in cogeneration: installation, cleaning, support and pitfalls

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If it cannot be used for energy, it must be flared. Simply venting it freely into the atmosphere does not meet the requirements of the Landfill Directive.

Sources: Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill gas: how it forms, what it consists of and who must degas a landfill

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Bottom ash and slag (code 19 01 12, provided they contain no hazardous substances; otherwise 19 01 11*) can, after treatment, be used e.g. in road construction, while fly ash and flue gas cleaning residues usually require more careful management as hazardous waste.

After incineration, roughly a dozen to several dozen per cent of the feed mass remains, mainly as slag; metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) are recovered from it, and the mineral residues can, after stabilisation, be used as aggregate if they meet quality requirements. Fly ash often has the hazardous waste code 19 01 13 (it contains hazardous substances), and solid waste from flue gas cleaning has code 19 01 07 and goes to specialised landfills or to stabilisation. Managing slag requires quality testing and compliance with regulations. The exact quantities depend on the composition of the waste and on the technology.

Sources: Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu w sprawie katalogu odpadów (Dz.U. 2020 poz. 10) — ISAP; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE o emisjach przemysłowych — EUR-Lex

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Landfill gas is biogas that forms spontaneously in a landfill as a result of the anaerobic decomposition of organic waste, consisting mainly of methane and CO₂.

The typical methane content is about 40–60%, and the remainder is mainly CO₂ and trace amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide, siloxanes and volatile organic compounds. The gas forms during the operation of the landfill and for many years after its closure, and its quantity declines over time. It is captured in wells and pipelines and then burned in flares or used in engines to generate energy. If not managed, it escapes into the atmosphere, which is harmful for the climate because methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and accumulated gas can pose an explosion hazard.

Sources: Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex; IEA Bioenergy Task 37 — Energy from Biogas

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RDF (refuse-derived fuel) is an alternative fuel produced from municipal or industrial waste of high calorific value, such as plastics, paper, textiles and wood, after it has been sorted and shredded.

It is produced in mechanical-biological treatment plants or sorting plants, where the combustible fraction is separated from metals, glass and bio-waste. It usually has code 19 12 10 (combustible waste – refuse-derived fuel). It is used in cement plants, combined heat and power plants and incinerators as a substitute for coal, but its quality varies and the content of chlorine, heavy metals and moisture must be controlled. RDF is tied to the waste hierarchy, because it is itself the result of sorting and should be made from fractions that are not suitable for recycling.

Sources: Komisja Europejska — Dyrekcja Generalna ds. Środowiska; Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu w sprawie katalogu odpadów (Dz.U. 2020 poz. 10) — ISAP

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Gasification is a process of partial oxidation of carbon-rich material at high temperature, producing synthesis gas (mainly CO and H₂) used to produce energy, fuels or chemicals.

In gasification the amount of oxygen or steam is limited, so the material does not burn completely. After cleaning, the synthesis gas can power an engine or a turbine or serve as a feedstock for synthesis, e.g. of methanol or synthetic methane. The challenges are contaminants (tars, chlorine, heavy metals) and feedstock stability, which is why waste facilities often require costly cleaning systems. Like pyrolysis, waste gasification is subject to the rules on thermal treatment of waste, and its development depends on costs and regulation.

Sources: IEA — Outlook for biogas and biomethane: prospects for organic growth; CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants

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Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic material in the absence or shortage of oxygen, at a temperature of several hundred degrees Celsius, producing gas, pyrolysis oil and char (a solid carbon residue).

Unlike incineration, in pyrolysis the material does not burn with a large excess of oxygen, and the products can be further used as fuel or feedstock. It is used, among other things, for plastic waste, tyres and biomass. The composition and quality of the products depend on temperature, time and feedstock; pyrolysis oils often require purification. At present the technology is less widespread than incineration, and its environmental assessment depends on the feedstock and the way the products are used. It is subject to the rules on thermal treatment of waste if it processes waste.

Sources: IEA — Outlook for biogas and biomethane: prospects for organic growth; CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants

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Waste-to-energy is the recovery of energy from waste that cannot sensibly be recycled, and it includes thermal treatment (incineration), fuels from waste (RDF), landfill gas, digestion of bio-waste, and also pyrolysis and gasification.

Municipal waste incinerators produce heat and electricity, RDF fuel is used in cement plants and combined heat and power plants, and landfill gas and biogas from digestion power engines or are injected into the grid after upgrading. Pyrolysis and gasification are advanced technologies in which waste is broken down under conditions of limited oxygen. In the waste hierarchy, energy recovery ranks below recycling, so it should serve fractions that are not suitable for recycling. It also requires strict emission standards.

Sources: CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants; Komisja Europejska — Dyrekcja Generalna ds. Środowiska

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Landfill gas most often fuels cogeneration engines producing electricity and heat, and where this is not possible it is burned in a flare; less often it is upgraded to biomethane.

Energy use is limited to landfills with enough gas of suitable methane concentration and quality. Before the engine, the gas is dried and cleaned of siloxanes and hydrogen sulphide. The Landfill Directive requires gas from landfills accepting biodegradable waste to be collected, treated and used, and if it cannot be used for energy, flared. Because the gas flow declines as the landfill ages, facilities for using it are designed in modules. In Poland landfill gas is shown in renewable energy statistics as a separate category (landfill biogas), distinct from agricultural biogas.

Sources: Dyrektywa Rady 1999/31/WE w sprawie składowania odpadów — EUR-Lex; IEA Bioenergy Task 37 — Energy from Biogas

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Incineration of municipal waste is energy recovery (R1) when the installation reaches the required energy efficiency: at least 0.65 for installations permitted after 31 December 2008 (0.60 for earlier ones), otherwise it is disposal (D10).

The requirement stems from Annex II to Directive 2008/98/EC, which describes an energy efficiency formula taking into account useful energy in the form of heat and electricity and the energy supplied from fuels and waste. The higher threshold for newer installations encourages the use of heat, e.g. in district heating. R1 status matters in the waste hierarchy and for some reporting obligations. In practice it depends on whether the heat from the incinerator has a customer. The details are regulated by the Waste Act.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE o odpadach — EUR-Lex; Ustawa o odpadach (Dz.U. 2013 poz. 21) — ISAP

Discussed in the article: R1, R3, R10 and D10: how the Waste Act classifies recovery and disposal

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There is no single one. For biowaste, digestion or composting; for residual waste, thermal treatment; for clean fractions, recycling. The composition of the stream and the waste hierarchy decide.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Energy from waste: comparing the routes — digestion, incineration, pyrolysis and landfill gas

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To waste incineration and co-incineration installations, including incinerators for municipal waste, hazardous waste and sewage sludge. The criteria differ depending on the type of installation.

Sources: Decyzja wykonawcza Komisji (UE) 2019/2010 — konkluzje BAT dla spalania odpadów — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: BAT conclusions for waste incineration (Decision 2019/2010): requirements, emission levels, deadlines

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It is paid by the entity using the environment, that is, the landfill operator, to the voivodeship marshal. The cost is then included in the gate fee for accepting waste.

Sources: Obwieszczenie Ministra Klimatu i Środowiska w sprawie wysokości stawek opłat za korzystanie ze środowiska na rok 2026 (M.P. 2025 poz. 769) — ELI; Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Landfill fees and the waste-to-energy market: how rates steer waste streams

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Cement plants co-incinerate RDF because a cement kiln operates at very high temperatures, which makes it possible to replace part of the coal with fuel from waste, and the fuel ash is incorporated into the clinker.

The material temperature in a cement kiln reaches about 1450 °C (the flame is much hotter), and the gas residence time is long, which favours the decomposition of organic compounds. As a result, cement plants can reduce coal consumption and costs, and the waste is put to use. Co-incineration is subject to the rules on thermal treatment of waste, including emission requirements and monitoring, and requires a permit. The quality of the RDF (chlorine, mercury, heavy metals, moisture) must fall within the plant's specification. Critics point to the risk of favouring incineration over recycling.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE o emisjach przemysłowych — EUR-Lex; CEWEP — Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants

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It contains tars, dust, sulphur and chlorine compounds and alkalis. They condense, deposit and corrode, so without cleaning they will damage the engine, turbine or catalyst.

Sources: Dyrektywa 2010/75/UE w sprawie emisji przemysłowych (IED) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2008/98/WE w sprawie odpadów — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: Gasification of waste and biomass: reactor types, syngas, tars and commercial reality

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Because emissions from burning waste containing fossil-based plastics are not covered by the carbon price, which weakens the incentive to recycle. Inclusion is meant to restore it, but it gives rise to disputes over costs and consequences for municipalities.

Sources: Dyrektywa (UE) 2023/959 zmieniająca dyrektywę 2003/87/WE (EU ETS) — EUR-Lex; Dyrektywa 2003/87/WE ustanawiająca system handlu uprawnieniami do emisji — EUR-Lex

Discussed in the article: EU ETS for municipal waste incineration plants: monitoring from 2024 and decisions after 2028

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Landfilling sits at the very bottom of the waste hierarchy because it generates methane, takes up land and wastes raw materials, which is why the EU requires that by 2035 no more than 10% (by weight) of the municipal waste generated is landfilled.

Directive (EU) 2018/850 amended the Landfill Directive and set this limit, and also a ban on landfilling waste collected separately for preparing for re-use or recycling (Article 5(3)(f) of Directive 1999/31/EC). In Poland, the Regulation of the Minister of Economy of 16 July 2015 on the admission of waste to landfills (Journal of Laws (Dz.U.) 2015, item 1277) allows waste with codes 19 08 05, 19 08 12, 19 08 14, 19 12 12 and from group 20 to be landfilled at a landfill for waste other than hazardous and inert only if its heat of combustion does not exceed 6 MJ/kg of dry matter (and total organic carbon, TOC, does not exceed 5% TS, and loss on ignition 8% TS). The result is growing demand for recycling, composting, digestion and thermal treatment facilities. This is general information.

Sources: Dyrektywa (UE) 2018/850 zmieniająca dyrektywę o składowaniu — EUR-Lex; Główny Urząd Statystyczny

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Not yet: since 2024 municipal waste incinerators have only monitored and reported emissions under the ETS, and on 17 July 2026 the European Commission proposed phasing them into the system from 2031.

The ETS Directive, as amended in 2023, introduced monitoring of emissions from municipal waste incineration and obliged the Commission to assess including them in the system by 31 July 2026. The Commission found inclusion appropriate and feasible. The proposal covers incineration and co-incineration plants for non-hazardous waste with a capacity above 3 t/h (hazardous waste incinerators remain outside the system). The surrender of allowances would rise from 25% of verified emissions for 2031, through 50% and 75%, to 100% for 2034; a Member State could, after demonstrating that at least two of three conditions are met (a national carbon tax, achievement of the recycling targets, achievement of the landfill reduction target), exempt these installations from the obligation to surrender allowances for emissions up to and including 2035. The proposal requires the consent of the Parliament and the Council, so it is not yet law. Inclusion would raise the cost of waste incineration, which could increase the importance of recycling and separate collection. Check current EU decisions.

Sources: Loyens & Loeff: propozycja rozszerzenia EU ETS na spalanie odpadów; Dyrektywa 2003/87/WE (EU ETS) — EUR-Lex

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